Comparison of Solar and Wind Energy Technologies

Comparison of Solar and Wind Energy Technologies Contents (Jump to) CHAPTER 3 Solar and wind technologies comparison 3.1 Economics of technologies 3.1.1 Cost of photovoltaic Cells 3.1.1 Economics of wind turbines 3.2 Efficiency of technologies 3.3 Advantages and disadvantages CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 4.1Results 4.2Discussion CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 5.1Conclusions 5.2Recommendation REFERENCES CHAPTER 2 Solar and Wind Technologies Comparison 3.1 Economics of technologies Installed cost and performance levels of renewable energy plants are similar around the world, although no single figure can quantify the precise cost and performance of any renewable technology. The location where the technology is installed plays a major role in providing the energy resource for renewable energy technologies. Solar installations close to the equator have more energy production capability. Wind energy variations are more extreme, windiest regions are favorable to install wind turbines that generates significant amount of electrical energy such as New Zealand and United Kingdom (Freris and Infield, 2008). Table 3.1 shows the main parameters related to renewable energy technologies and conventional plant. It also indicates the three major components of energy generation cost which are: (1) the cost of the plant, land acquisition, grid connection and initial finance cost, (2) operation and maintenance cost (OM) and finally fuel cost. From the table it is noticeable that most of the renewable energy technologies have zero fuel cost and it varies in conventional plant. Table 3.1: Comparison of cost and performance data for renewable energy and conventional plant (Freris and Infield, 2008) Levelized cost method is the main traditional approach used to compare cost generating electricity from various energy technologies. The levelized cost of energy technologies is measured as it is shown in Equation 3.1: LOCE = (Eq. 3.1) The LCOE method is concept from reality and is used as a ranking tool to measure the cost-effectiveness of various energy generation technologies. Where CF is the capacity factor; OC is the overnight construction cost; CRF is the capital recovery factor; OMC is the series of annualized operation and maintenance costs; FC is the series of annualized fuel costs; r is the discount rate and T is the economic life of the plant. 3.1.1 Cost of photovoltaic Cells Solar radiation is a finite and free source of energy but despite that, there is cost for utilizing this form of energy. The calculation of the cost of solar energy can be made in the following manner. Assuming the solar system would have a specific lifetime of T years at initial cost of C0 Dollar. The amount of energy the system can generate during the lifetime of the system is Q (Goswami et al., 2000). The unite cost of energy, neglecting the interest charges, is equal to the cost of the installation divided by the total energy generated during the lifetime as it is shown in Equations 3.2: Cs = (Eq. 3.2) For example if the solar energy collector cost $200/m2 , has an expected life of 20 years, and is installed in a location where the mean annual horizontal surface irradiance is 300 W/m2 averaged over 24 hours, the cost of solar energy Cs will be equal to: = = $0.00380/Kw.hr However it is clear that no solar energy collector can perform at 100% efficiency. According to thermodynamic laws only a fraction of incident energy can be transformed into useful heat. Assuming the efficiency of the collector ÆÅ ¾c is 40 percent, the cost of solar will be given by Equation 3.2: Cs = = $0.00951/Kw.hr (Eq. 3.3) The efficiency of photovoltaic device plays a major role in the cost of the technology as we notice from the previous equation along with the optic of the device. The price of photovoltaic materials is usually expressed on a per-unit-area basis but the units are often sold based on cost per watt that is generated under peak solar illumination conditions. Equation 3.4 is used to convert the cost per square meter to cost per watt for photovoltaic technologies: $/WP = (Eq. 3.4) The return on investment made for specific equipment or material used for the photovoltaic system also is estimated. The payback time of PV unite of cost $/m2, is associated with the efficiency of the system, the installation location and the price of at which electricity generated is sold on the market $/kWh. Equation 3.5 is used to estimate the payback time which is: Payback time = (Eq. 3.5) The generate a significant quantity of energy in commercial application, several elements should be mainly considered such as the average illumination, cost of land, batteries, support structure and the life time of the PV unite. Balance of system (BOS) cost must be considered and it includes the mounting, wiring, operation cost and maintenance cost. The cost of electricity generated by solar cells can be calculated using Equation 3.6a and Figure 3.1 illustrate breakdown of the cost in PV system. Figure 3.1: PV Solar System Cost Breakdown (Source: the Rocky Mountain Institute) (Eq. 3.6a) Inserting the relevant terms, in Equation 3.6a and it becomes: = (Eq. 3.6b) The amortization rate is estimated from the real discount rate of i, and a PV lifetime, N, as shown in Equation 3.7: Amortization = (Eq. 3.7) The global annual production of solar energy technologies is estimated to be at approximately 12,400 MW in year 2007. Annual growth of PV production remains to be at 40-50% and according to Earth Policy Institute, the photovoltaic industry has grown by an average of 48% each year since 2002. This rapid growth of PV production made the solar energy became the world fastest-growing renewable energy resource (Henry and Healey, 2007). The wide variety of photovoltaic panel’s technologies competing in different energy markets was a major role in the rapid growth of solar energy technologies in a short period of time. For instance, large–scale photovoltaic panels and concentrated solar power technologies are competing with other technologies that seek to serve the centralized grid. Whereby on the other hand, small-scale solar systems compete with other types of technologies such as; diesel generation sets and off-grid wind turbines (Timilsinaa et al., 2012). Along with the variety of PV technologies, with the advancement of science and technology sector, the efficiency and power generation capacity of solar technologies have been improved to generate electricity that can compete with the conventional sources power plants. Photovoltaic technologies have been experiencing, the price of PV models haven been steadily decreasing during the past few decades. A lot of elements such as; Technology improvement using lower cost feedstock’s, efficiency increases, thinner solar cells, reduction in technical losses and increased manufacturing through had played a major role in decreasing the cost of PV modules throughout the years (Sioshansi, 2011). Figure 3.2 shows the declination in photovoltaic panel’s price per watt from 1978 until 2012. Figure 3.2: Historical photovoltaic module price per watt from 1978-2012 (Source: Navigant Consulting, 2008) From the Figure3.2, the price of PV modules were at it maximum in 1976 with 75$ per watt but in year 1978 the price drop to reach almost 55$ per watt. PV modules price kept decrease with the time passage and between 1986 and 1988 the price of PV module reached below the 10$ per watt. The declination of PV modules cost did not stop and between years 2010 and 2012 the price reached the lowest rate which was 1$ per watt. Photovoltaic technology system have no moving parts, this property reduces the cost of PV modules significantly along with the minimum operation and maintenance costs (mainly to remove the dirt and dust off the module) which is around 0.5% of the capital investment per year. The cost of PV unit presently is 60% of the total cost of PV system cost and the remaining 40% is covered by the structures, inverters and cabling costs (Aswathanarayana et al., 2010). References Henry M. and Healey P.E (2007): Economics of Solar, Cogeneration Distributed Generation Journal, vol. (22), no. (3), pp. 35-49, DOI: 10.1080/15453660709509122. Timilsinaa, G. R. Kurdgelashvili, L. and Narbel, P. A. (2012): Solar energy: Markets, economics and policies, vol. (12), pp. 449-465. Print Book: Freris, L and Infield, D. (2008): Renewable energy: In power systems, United Kingdom: John Wiley Sons, Ltd. Print Book: Goswami, Y. Kreith, F. and Kreider, J. F. (2000): Second Edition: Principle of Solar Engineering, New York, US: Taylor and Francis Group Print Book: Sioshansi, F. P. (2011): Energy, sustainability and the environment: Technology, incentives, behavior. Oxford, UK: Elsevier Inc.

Red Faction :: essays research papers

*************************** 29. Refuse Disposal Plant *************************** Open the elevator door by hitting the button to the right. Head forward, and Gryphon will run up ahead to the incinerator controls. ======================================================================= = Hendrix: This is Ultor's main trash disposal facility. = ======================================================================= ======================================================================= = Hendrix: That's an Ultor Personnel Suppression combot. I didn't = = know they had any on Mars! = ======================================================================= ======================================================================= = Hendrix: I can't see Orion's group on my monitors anymore. = ======================================================================= While Gryphon takes the first left, go forward up the ramp and through the door. Climb the ladder up ahead, then climb a second ladder to get to the roof. You'll be shot at by the combat as you climb, but just ignore it and get up there. He'll have a tough time hurting you while you're up here. Follow the instructions and you shouldn't lose a single point of health, despite the holes he might create with his rockets. As you look around the outer edge of the massive roof, you'll see several groups of ammo crates. Make your way around the outer edge as you make your way to each one to find ammo, medkits, armor, and a rocket launcher. Make sure to snuggle up to each crate and jump on top of it to make sure you get every last piece of ammo and equipment that you can. Once you're done, equip the rocket launcher and climb back down using a ladder away from the one you climbed up. The combot should be shooting at you, so begin making your way to the lower level door. Most importantly, keep moving and take some shots at the combot with the rocket launcher while you can. Keep taking shots at the combot and luring him out the large door on the ground floor until Hendrix cuts in. ======================================================================= = Hendrix: There's a disposal pit at the lowest point of this level. = ======================================================================= ======================================================================= = Hendrix: Try to lure the bot out onto the pit's covering, then open = = the doors from the control room. = ======================================================================= At this point, you've damaged the combot enough and he's really ticked off. Now just turn around and run back to the disposal pit. Once the combot approaches the last corridor leading to the pit's covering, run to the right and climb the ladder to the control room (where Gryphon is cowering in fear). The combot will be unloading everything he's got at you, but ignore it and quickly hit the right button to open the pit, then hit the left button to turn on the ceiling fan to blow the combot down into it. Rather than waiting and watching to make sure it happens,

Coconut Oil

Coconut oil is a popular nutritional oil derived from the flesh of matured coconuts. Coconuts have long been a primary source of food throughout the tropics and their many industrial and cosmetic applications have made them a valuable commodity. Coconut oil is heat stable, making it suitable for cooking at high temperatures, it’s slow to oxidize, resists rancidity and has a shelf life of approximately two years or more (virgin coco creme created through a wet-milling process has an indefinite shelf life). Coconut oil’s compositionCoconuts have a variety of health benefits due to their fibre and nutritional content, but it’s the oil that makes them a remarkable source of food and medicine. Coconut oil has definitely earned its reputation as the healthiest oil in the world despite the fact that its high saturated fat content was once falsely claimed to be unhealthy. What makes coconut oil different? Oils and fats are composed of molecules known as fatty acids. They are classified either according to saturation or based on molecular length and size of the carbon chain within each fatty acid.Monounsaturated fats and polyunsaturated fats are an example of the first class. The second classification is based on molecular size or length of the fatty acid’s carbon chain. Long chains of carbon atoms consist of each fatty acid with an attached hydrogen atom. There are short chain fatty acids known as SCFA, medium chain fatty acids (MCFA) such as coconut oil and long chain fatty acids (LCFA). Whether unsaturated or saturated, the majority of fats and oils in our diet are composed of long chain fatty acids.In fact, a majority of the fatty acids commonly consumed are LCFA. Coconut oil is predominantly medium-chain fatty acid (MCFA) and the effects of the MCFA in coconut oil are distinctly different from the LCFA found in other foods. In fact, the saturated and unsaturated fat in milk, eggs, meat and even in plants and most vegetable oils are made of LCFA. Why is this relevant? It’s important because our bodies respond and metabolize each fatty acid differently. The MCFA found in coconut oil makes it special because these fatty acids don’t have a negative effect on cholesterol.In fact, they’re known to lower the risk of heart disease and atherosclerosis. There are only few dietary sources of MCFA, and one of the best sources by far is coconut oil. The liver and gall bladder don’t need to digest and emulsify MCFA, resulting in instant energy, increased metabolic rate and subsequently greater heat production and increased circulation. Anyone with an impaired fat digestion or removed gallbladder will benefit from coconut oil as this oil is  easily digested. Lauric acid Many of coconut oil’s health benefits are attributed to its lauric acid.Lauric acid in the body is converted into monolaurin, a compound that’s highly toxic to viruses, bacteria, fungi and other microorganisms because of its ability to disrupt their lipid membranes and virtually destroy them. Monolaurin is effective for treating candida albicans, fungal infections and athlete’s foot. It also targets bacterial infections and viruses like measles, influenza, hepatitis C and even HIV—researchers from the Philippines are studying the effectiveness of lauric acid against HIV/AIDS due to its strong antiviral properties.Moreover, lauric acid is non-toxic, making it a better alternative to modern drugs prescribed for viruses, fungal and bacterial infections. Without lauric acid, monolaurin cannot be produced by the body. Breast milk is the only other source of lauric acid, which could explain the lower incidence of infections among breast-fed infants. Regular consumption of coconut oil has also been found to boost immunity and reduce the frequency of sickness. The health benefits of coconut oilHair care  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ The unique fatty acids in coconut oil have a small molecular structure and pas s freely into the hair’s cell membrane, allowing the oil to penetrate the hair’s shaft, which brings out the deep conditioning from within as compared to other conditioners that work from the outside in. Massaging the oil into the scalp can offer relief from dandruff. Dandruff is caused by dry skin or an internal fungal condition that reached the scalp. With regular use, coconut oil can kill the fungus and eliminate dandruff issues. For  deep hair conditioning, a teaspoon or two on damp hair left for as long as possible can give a nice shine.Leave it on overnight and see startling results. Skin care  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ Coconut oil is an excellent skin conditioner that contains medium-chain triglycerides, naturally occurring fats which deeply penetrate, moisturize and act as a protective barrier against environmental and free radical damage. The oil also provides sun protection by screening 20 per cent of ultraviolet exposure. Coconut oil is rich in antioxidants and the natur al microbial and antibacterial agents caphrylic and capric acids. Its ability to smooth the skin while infusing with antioxidants make it a perfect anti-aging moisturizer.Moreover, it contains vitamin E, another antioxidant popular for hastening the recovery of skin abrasions, burns and other trauma. Weight loss  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ Medium-chain fatty acids found in coconut oil can speed up metabolism faster than long-chain fatty acids because they are easily digested and converted into energy. In fact, a  study reported  medium-chain fatty acids to be three times more effective in raising metabolism than long-chain fatty acids, leading researchers to conclude that effective weight loss can be achieved by replacing long-chain fatty acids with medium-chain fatty acids.Natural remedy for pneumonia  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ The American College of Chest Physicians found that coconut oil offers pneumonia patients faster and more complete relief from symptoms. This could be a welcome development for many a s this means a shortened hospital stay, lower medical expenses and lower exposure for the patient to a hospital environment. Moreover, it’s an  inexpensive addition to traditional antibiotics  and has no known side effects.Lowers risk of diabetes, heart disease and improves cholesterol levels  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ In a study of 20 to 40-year-old women, half were instructed to take a 30 ml soybean oil supplement while the other half were instructed to take a 30 ml coconut oil supplement while maintaining a moderate exercise routine over a 12-week period. Results showed that although both groups of women had a decrease in body mass index (BMI), only the women who were taking coconut oil showed a notable decrease in waist circumference, significantly lowering the risk of conditions like type II diabetes and heart disease.Furthermore, the study also showed that the subjects who experienced an improvement in their cholesterol profile along with higher HDL levels and higher HDL to LDL ra tio were the ones taking coconut oil. Those taking soybean oil did not receive the  same benefits  but reflected a higher total cholesterol as well as higher LDL cholesterol lower, lower HDL cholesterol and a lower HDL to LDL ratio. Assists in bone health and chronic fatigue  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ Research has found coconut oil to help prevent osteoporosis because it helps in the nutrient absorption of minerals such as calcium and magnesium – important minerals that fight steoporosis. Moreover, the medium-chain fatty acids in coconut oil  produce energy  rather than body fat, thereby improving metabolism and preventing fatigue. The oil has also been shown to destroy organisms in the body that sap its strength and contribute to the condition of fatigue. Alzheimer’s Disease  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ Dr. Mary Newport, after failing to get treatment for her husband’s dementia, discovered that coconut oil contained natural medium-chain triglyceride (MCT). The same substance was used in a drug trial her husband failed to qualify for.So, she gave her husband 1 tbsp. of coconut oil twice a day for a month and a half and saw him recover almost completely. Other benefits: †¢ Protects against cancer, HIV and other infectious diseases †¢ Kills bacteria and parasites like tapeworm and liver flukes †¢ Eases acid reflux and aids in proper bowel function †¢ Lowers incidence of hemorrhoids †¢ Heals and relieves intestinal problems †¢ Soothes earaches †¢ Deals with symptoms connected with prostate enlargement †¢ Strengthens the liver and protects against degeneration Reduces incidence of epileptic seizures †¢ Reduces joint and muscle inflammation †¢ Eases neuropathies and itching from diabetes. How much oil should be taken? According to researchers, an adult should consume around 3 1/2 tbsp. of coconut oil daily: an amount equal to the MCFA a nursing infant would receive in one day. The benefits of coconut oil are derived fr om the nutritional value of medium-chain fatty acids (MCFA’s), and the best comparison in nature as to the percentage of MCFA consumed in a diet is in human breast milk.For those who aren’t used to having coconut oil in their diet, it’s best to start out with a smaller amount and see how the body reacts before following the recommended amount. Does coconut oil have any adverse side effects? Coconut oil has no known side effects. However, if you’re used to a low-fat diet, a common adverse reaction would be diarrhea. It’s probably not advisable to start with a large amount right away. Spreading the recommended amount over the course of one day and building up to a larger dose can help to avoid unwanted effects.In coconut-producing countries, it’s considered beneficial for pregnant and lactating women to enjoy coconut oil; Westerners used to a low-fat diet, however, are cautioned not to experiment with coconut oil while pregnant if the body is not used to it. If you’ve been consuming coconut oil regularly with no adverse reactions, there’s no reason to discontinue consumption. Read more at  http://www. themindfulword. org/2012/coconut-oil-health-benefits/#XF4RhFfeAcAAu3hx. 99 Coconut Oil Coconut oil is a popular nutritional oil derived from the flesh of matured coconuts. Coconuts have long been a primary source of food throughout the tropics and their many industrial and cosmetic applications have made them a valuable commodity. Coconut oil is heat stable, making it suitable for cooking at high temperatures, it’s slow to oxidize, resists rancidity and has a shelf life of approximately two years or more (virgin coco creme created through a wet-milling process has an indefinite shelf life). Coconut oil’s compositionCoconuts have a variety of health benefits due to their fibre and nutritional content, but it’s the oil that makes them a remarkable source of food and medicine. Coconut oil has definitely earned its reputation as the healthiest oil in the world despite the fact that its high saturated fat content was once falsely claimed to be unhealthy. What makes coconut oil different? Oils and fats are composed of molecules known as fatty acids. They are classified either according to saturation or based on molecular length and size of the carbon chain within each fatty acid.Monounsaturated fats and polyunsaturated fats are an example of the first class. The second classification is based on molecular size or length of the fatty acid’s carbon chain. Long chains of carbon atoms consist of each fatty acid with an attached hydrogen atom. There are short chain fatty acids known as SCFA, medium chain fatty acids (MCFA) such as coconut oil and long chain fatty acids (LCFA). Whether unsaturated or saturated, the majority of fats and oils in our diet are composed of long chain fatty acids.In fact, a majority of the fatty acids commonly consumed are LCFA. Coconut oil is predominantly medium-chain fatty acid (MCFA) and the effects of the MCFA in coconut oil are distinctly different from the LCFA found in other foods. In fact, the saturated and unsaturated fat in milk, eggs, meat and even in plants and most vegetable oils are made of LCFA. Why is this relevant? It’s important because our bodies respond and metabolize each fatty acid differently. The MCFA found in coconut oil makes it special because these fatty acids don’t have a negative effect on cholesterol.In fact, they’re known to lower the risk of heart disease and atherosclerosis. There are only few dietary sources of MCFA, and one of the best sources by far is coconut oil. The liver and gall bladder don’t need to digest and emulsify MCFA, resulting in instant energy, increased metabolic rate and subsequently greater heat production and increased circulation. Anyone with an impaired fat digestion or removed gallbladder will benefit from coconut oil as this oil is  easily digested. Lauric acid Many of coconut oil’s health benefits are attributed to its lauric acid.Lauric acid in the body is converted into monolaurin, a compound that’s highly toxic to viruses, bacteria, fungi and other microorganisms because of its ability to disrupt their lipid membranes and virtually destroy them. Monolaurin is effective for treating candida albicans, fungal infections and athlete’s foot. It also targets bacterial infections and viruses like measles, influenza, hepatitis C and even HIV—researchers from the Philippines are studying the effectiveness of lauric acid against HIV/AIDS due to its strong antiviral properties.Moreover, lauric acid is non-toxic, making it a better alternative to modern drugs prescribed for viruses, fungal and bacterial infections. Without lauric acid, monolaurin cannot be produced by the body. Breast milk is the only other source of lauric acid, which could explain the lower incidence of infections among breast-fed infants. Regular consumption of coconut oil has also been found to boost immunity and reduce the frequency of sickness. The health benefits of coconut oilHair care  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ The unique fatty acids in coconut oil have a small molecular structure and pas s freely into the hair’s cell membrane, allowing the oil to penetrate the hair’s shaft, which brings out the deep conditioning from within as compared to other conditioners that work from the outside in. Massaging the oil into the scalp can offer relief from dandruff. Dandruff is caused by dry skin or an internal fungal condition that reached the scalp. With regular use, coconut oil can kill the fungus and eliminate dandruff issues. For  deep hair conditioning, a teaspoon or two on damp hair left for as long as possible can give a nice shine.Leave it on overnight and see startling results. Skin care  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ Coconut oil is an excellent skin conditioner that contains medium-chain triglycerides, naturally occurring fats which deeply penetrate, moisturize and act as a protective barrier against environmental and free radical damage. The oil also provides sun protection by screening 20 per cent of ultraviolet exposure. Coconut oil is rich in antioxidants and the natur al microbial and antibacterial agents caphrylic and capric acids. Its ability to smooth the skin while infusing with antioxidants make it a perfect anti-aging moisturizer.Moreover, it contains vitamin E, another antioxidant popular for hastening the recovery of skin abrasions, burns and other trauma. Weight loss  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ Medium-chain fatty acids found in coconut oil can speed up metabolism faster than long-chain fatty acids because they are easily digested and converted into energy. In fact, a  study reported  medium-chain fatty acids to be three times more effective in raising metabolism than long-chain fatty acids, leading researchers to conclude that effective weight loss can be achieved by replacing long-chain fatty acids with medium-chain fatty acids.Natural remedy for pneumonia  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ The American College of Chest Physicians found that coconut oil offers pneumonia patients faster and more complete relief from symptoms. This could be a welcome development for many a s this means a shortened hospital stay, lower medical expenses and lower exposure for the patient to a hospital environment. Moreover, it’s an  inexpensive addition to traditional antibiotics  and has no known side effects.Lowers risk of diabetes, heart disease and improves cholesterol levels  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ In a study of 20 to 40-year-old women, half were instructed to take a 30 ml soybean oil supplement while the other half were instructed to take a 30 ml coconut oil supplement while maintaining a moderate exercise routine over a 12-week period. Results showed that although both groups of women had a decrease in body mass index (BMI), only the women who were taking coconut oil showed a notable decrease in waist circumference, significantly lowering the risk of conditions like type II diabetes and heart disease.Furthermore, the study also showed that the subjects who experienced an improvement in their cholesterol profile along with higher HDL levels and higher HDL to LDL ra tio were the ones taking coconut oil. Those taking soybean oil did not receive the  same benefits  but reflected a higher total cholesterol as well as higher LDL cholesterol lower, lower HDL cholesterol and a lower HDL to LDL ratio. Assists in bone health and chronic fatigue  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ Research has found coconut oil to help prevent osteoporosis because it helps in the nutrient absorption of minerals such as calcium and magnesium – important minerals that fight steoporosis. Moreover, the medium-chain fatty acids in coconut oil  produce energy  rather than body fat, thereby improving metabolism and preventing fatigue. The oil has also been shown to destroy organisms in the body that sap its strength and contribute to the condition of fatigue. Alzheimer’s Disease  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ Dr. Mary Newport, after failing to get treatment for her husband’s dementia, discovered that coconut oil contained natural medium-chain triglyceride (MCT). The same substance was used in a drug trial her husband failed to qualify for.So, she gave her husband 1 tbsp. of coconut oil twice a day for a month and a half and saw him recover almost completely. Other benefits: †¢ Protects against cancer, HIV and other infectious diseases †¢ Kills bacteria and parasites like tapeworm and liver flukes †¢ Eases acid reflux and aids in proper bowel function †¢ Lowers incidence of hemorrhoids †¢ Heals and relieves intestinal problems †¢ Soothes earaches †¢ Deals with symptoms connected with prostate enlargement †¢ Strengthens the liver and protects against degeneration Reduces incidence of epileptic seizures †¢ Reduces joint and muscle inflammation †¢ Eases neuropathies and itching from diabetes. How much oil should be taken? According to researchers, an adult should consume around 3 1/2 tbsp. of coconut oil daily: an amount equal to the MCFA a nursing infant would receive in one day. The benefits of coconut oil are derived fr om the nutritional value of medium-chain fatty acids (MCFA’s), and the best comparison in nature as to the percentage of MCFA consumed in a diet is in human breast milk.For those who aren’t used to having coconut oil in their diet, it’s best to start out with a smaller amount and see how the body reacts before following the recommended amount. Does coconut oil have any adverse side effects? Coconut oil has no known side effects. However, if you’re used to a low-fat diet, a common adverse reaction would be diarrhea. It’s probably not advisable to start with a large amount right away. Spreading the recommended amount over the course of one day and building up to a larger dose can help to avoid unwanted effects.In coconut-producing countries, it’s considered beneficial for pregnant and lactating women to enjoy coconut oil; Westerners used to a low-fat diet, however, are cautioned not to experiment with coconut oil while pregnant if the body is not used to it. If you’ve been consuming coconut oil regularly with no adverse reactions, there’s no reason to discontinue consumption. Read more at  http://www. themindfulword. org/2012/coconut-oil-health-benefits/#XF4RhFfeAcAAu3hx. 99

The History of the English Language

The story of English—from its start in a jumble of West Germanic dialects to its role today as a global language—is both fascinating and complex. This timeline offers a glimpse at some of the key events that helped to shape the English language over the past 1,500 years. To learn more about the ways that English evolved in Britain and then spread around the world, check out The History of English in 10 Minutes, an amusing video produced by the Open University. The Prehistory of English The ultimate origins of English lie in Indo-European, a family of languages consisting of most of the languages of Europe as well as those of Iran, the Indian subcontinent, and other parts of Asia. Because little is known about ancient Indo-European (which may have been spoken as long ago as 3,000 B.C.), well begin our survey in Britain in the first century A.D. 43—The Romans invade Britain, beginning 400 years of control over much of the island.410—The Goths (speakers of a now extinct East Germanic language) sack Rome. The first Germanic tribes arrive in Britain.Early 5th century—With the collapse of the empire, Romans withdraw from Britain. Britons are attacked by the Picts and by Scots from Ireland. Angles, Saxons, and other German settlers arrive in Britain to assist the Britons and claim territory.5th-6th centuries—Germanic peoples (Angles, Saxons, Jutes, Frisians) speaking West Germanic dialects settle most of Britain. Celts retreat to distant areas of Britain: Ireland, Scotland, Wales. 500-1100: The Old English (or Anglo-Saxon) Period The conquest of the Celtic population in Britain by speakers of West Germanic dialects (primarily Angles, Saxons, and Jutes) eventually determined many of the essential characteristics of the English language. (The Celtic influence on English survives for the most part only in place names—London, Dover, Avon, York.) Over time the dialects of the various invaders merged, giving rise to what we now call Old English. Late 6th century—Ethelbert, the King of Kent, is baptized. He is the first English king to convert to Christianity.7th century—Rise of the Saxon kingdom of Wessex; the Saxon kingdoms of Essex and Middlesex; the Angle kingdoms of Mercia, East Anglia, and Northumbria. St. Augustine and Irish missionaries convert Anglo-Saxons to Christianity, introducing new religious words borrowed from Latin and Greek. Latin speakers begin referring to the country as Anglia and later as Englaland.673—Birth of the Venerable Bede, the monk who composed (in Latin) The Ecclesiastical History of the English People (c. 731), a key source of information about Anglo Saxon settlement.700—Approximate date of the earliest manuscript records of Old English.Late 8th century—Scandinavians begin to settle in Britain and Ireland; Danes settle in parts of Ireland.Early 9th century—Egbert of Wessex incorporates Cornwall into his kingdom and is recognized as overlord of the seve n kingdoms of the Angles and Saxons (the Heptarchy): England begins to emerge.Mid 9th century—Danes raid England, occupy Northumbria, and establish a kingdom at York. Danish begins to influence English.Late 9th century—King Alfred of Wessex (Alfred the Great) leads the Anglo-Saxons to victory over the Vikings, translates Latin works into English and establishes the writing of prose in English. He uses the English language to foster a sense of national identity. England is divided into a kingdom ruled by the Anglo-Saxons (under Alfred) and another ruled by the Scandinavians.10th century—English and Danes mix fairly peacefully, and many Scandinavian (or Old Norse) loanwords enter the language, including such common words as sister, wish, skin, and die.1000—Approximate date of the only surviving manuscript of the Old English epic poem Beowulf, composed by an anonymous poet between the 8th century and the early 11th century.Early 11th century—Danes att ack England, and the English king (Ethelred the Unready) escapes to Normandy. The Battle of Maldon becomes the subject of one of the few surviving poems in Old English. The Danish king (Canute) rules over England and encourages the growth of Anglo-Saxon culture and literature.Mid 11th century—Edward the Confessor, King of England who was raised in Normandy, names William, Duke of Normandy, as his heir.1066—The Norman Invasion: King Harold is killed at the Battle of Hastings, and William of Normandy is crowned King of England. Over succeeding decades, Norman French becomes the language of the courts and of the upper classes; English remains the language of the majority. Latin is used in churches and schools. For the next century, English, for all practical purposes, is no longer a written language. 1100-1500: The Middle English Period The Middle English period saw the breakdown of the inflectional system of Old English and the expansion of vocabulary with many borrowings from French and Latin. 1150—Approximate date of the earliest surviving texts in Middle English.1171—Henry II declares himself overlord of Ireland, introducing Norman French and English to the country. About this time the University of Oxford is founded.1204—King John loses control of the Duchy of Normandy and other French lands; England is now the only home of the Norman French/English.1209—The University of Cambridge is formed by scholars from Oxford.1215—King John signs the Magna Carta (Great Charter), a critical document in the long historical process leading to the rule of constitutional law in the English-speaking world.1258—King Henry III is forced to accept the Provisions of Oxford, which establish a Privy Council to oversee the administration of the government. These documents, though annulled a few years later, are generally regarded as Englands first written constitution.Late 13th century—Under Edward I, royal authority is consolidated in England a nd Wales. English becomes the dominant language of all classes.Mid to late 14th century—The Hundred Years War between England and France leads to the loss of almost all of Englands French possessions. The Black Death kills roughly one-third of Englands population. Geoffrey Chaucer composes The Canterbury Tales in Middle English. English becomes the official language of the law courts and replaces Latin as the medium of instruction at most schools. John Wycliffes English translation of the Latin Bible is published. The Great Vowel Shift begins, marking the loss of the so-called pure vowel sounds (which are still found in many continental languages) and the loss of the phonetic pairings of most long and short vowel sounds.1362—The Statute of Pleading makes English the official language in England. Parliament is opened with its first speech delivered in English.1399 At his coronation, King Henry IV becomes the first English monarch to deliver a speech in English.Late 15th century—William Caxton brings to Westminster (from the Rhineland) the first printing press and publishes Chaucers The Canterbury Tales. Literacy rates increase significantly, and printers begin to standardize English spelling. The monk Galfridus Grammaticus (also known as Geoffrey the Grammarian) publishes Thesaurus Linguae Romanae et Britannicae, the first English-to-Latin wordbook. 1500 to the Present: The  Modern English  Period Distinctions are commonly drawn between the Early Modern Period (1500-1800) and Late Modern English (1800 to the present). During the period of Modern English, British exploration, colonization, and overseas trade hastened the acquisition of  loanwords  from countless other languages and fostered the development of new varieties of English (World English), each with its own nuances of  vocabulary,  grammar, and  pronunciation. Since the middle of the 20th century, the expansion of North American business and media around the world has led to the emergence of  Global English  as a  lingua franca. Early 16th century—The first English settlements are made in North America. William Tyndales English translation of the Bible is published. Many Greek and Latin  borrowings  enter English.1542—In his  Fyrst Boke of the Introduction of Knowledge, Andrew Boorde illustrates regional  dialects.1549—The first version of the Book of Common Prayer of the Church of England is published.1553—Thomas Wilson publishes  The Art of Rhetorique, one of the first works on  logic  and  rhetoric  in English.1577—Henry Peacham publishes  The Garden of Eloquence, a treatise on rhetoric.1586—The first  grammar  of English—William Bullokars  Pamphlet for Grammar—is published.1588—Elizabeth I begins her 45-year reign as queen of England. The British defeat the Spanish Armada, boosting national pride and enhancing the legend of Queen Elizabeth.1589—The Art of English Poesie  (attributed to George Puttenham) is p ublished.1590-1611—William Shakespeare writes his  Sonnets  and the majority of his plays.1600—The East India Company is chartered to promote trade with Asia, eventually leading to the establishment of the British Raj in India.1603—Queen Elizabeth dies and James I (James VI of Scotland) accedes to the throne.1604—Robert Cawdreys  Table Alphabeticall, the first English  dictionary, is published.  1607—The first permanent English settlement in America is established at Jamestown, Virginia.1611—The Authorized Version of the English Bible (the King James Bible) is published, greatly influencing the development of the written language.1619—The first African slaves in North America arrive in Virginia.1622—Weekly News, the first English newspaper, is published in London.1623—The First Folio edition of Shakespeares plays is published.1642—Civil War breaks out in England after King Charles I attempts to arrest hi s parliamentary critics. The war leads to the execution of Charles I, the dissolution of parliament, and the replacement of the English monarchy with a Protectorate (1653–59) under Oliver Cromwells rule.1660—The monarchy is restored; Charles II is proclaimed king.1662—The Royal Society of London appoints a committee to consider ways of improving English as a language of science.1666—The Great Fire of London destroys most of the City of London inside the old Roman City Wall.1667—John Milton publishes his epic poem  Paradise Lost.1670—The Hudsons Bay Company is chartered for promoting trade and settlement in Canada.1688—Aphra Behn, the first woman novelist in England, publishes  Oroonoko, or the History of the Royal Slave.1697—In his  Essay Upon Projects,  Daniel Defoe  calls for the creation of an Academy of 36 gentlemen to dictate English  usage.1702—The Daily Courant, the first regular daily newspaper in Eng lish, is published in London.1707—The Act of Union unites the Parliaments of England and  Scotland, creating the United Kingdom of Great Britain.1709—The first Copyright Act is enacted in England.1712—Anglo-Irish satirist and cleric  Jonathan Swift  proposes the creation of an English Academy to regulate English  usage  and ascertain the language.1719—Daniel Defoe publishes  Robinson Crusoe, considered by some to be the first modern English novel.1721—Nathaniel Bailey publishes his  Universal Etymological Dictionary of the English Language, a pioneer study in English  lexicography: the first to feature current  usage,  etymology,  syllabification, clarifying  quotations, illustrations, and indications of  pronunciation.1715—Elisabeth Elstob publishes the first grammar of Old English.1755—Samuel Johnson  publishes his two-volume  Dictionary of the English Language.1760-1795—This period marks the ris e of the English grammarians (Joseph Priestly, Robert Lowth, James Buchanan, John Ash, Thomas Sheridan, George Campbell, William Ward, and Lindley Murray), whose rule books, primarily based on  prescriptive  notions of grammar, become increasingly popular.  1762—Robert Lowth publishes his  Short Introduction to English Grammar.1776—The  Declaration of Independence  is signed, and the American War of Independence begins, leading to the creation of the United States of America, the first country outside the British Isles with English as its principal language.1776—George Campbell publishes  The Philosophy of Rhetoric.1783—Noah Webster  publishes his  American Spelling Book.1785—The Daily Universal Register  (renamed  The Times  in 1788) begins publication in London.1788—The English first settle in  Australia, near present-day Sydney.1789—Noah Webster publishes  Dissertations on the English Language, which adv ocates an  American standard of usage.1791—The Observer, the oldest national Sunday newspaper in Britain, begins publication.Early 19th century—Grimms Law  (discovered by Friedrich von Schlegel and Rasmus Rask, later elaborated by Jacob Grimm) identifies relationships between certain  consonants  in Germanic languages (including English) and their originals in Indo-European. The formulation of Grimms Law marks a major advance in the development of  linguistics  as a scholarly field of study.1803—The Act of Union incorporates Ireland into Britain, creating the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.1806—The British occupy Cape Colony in South Africa.1810—William Hazlitt  publishes  A New and Improved Grammar of the English Language.​1816—John Pickering compiles the first dictionary of  Americanisms.1828—Noah Webster publishes his  American Dictionary of the English Language. Richard Whateley publishes  Elements of Rhetoric.1840—The native Maori in  New Zealand  cede sovereignty to the British.1842—The London Philological Society is founded.1844—The telegraph is invented by Samuel Morse, inaugurating the development of rapid communication, a major influence on the growth and spread of English.Mid 19th century—A  standard variety of American English  develops. English is established in  Australia,  South Africa,  India, and other British colonial outposts.1852—The first edition of  Rogets Thesaurus  is published.1866—James Russell Lowell champions the use of American  regionalisms, helping to end deference to the  Received British Standard. Alexander Bain publishes  English Composition and Rhetoric. The transatlantic telegraph cable is completed.1876—Alexander Graham Bell invents the telephone, thus modernizing private communication.1879—James A.H. Murray begins editing the Philological Societys  New English Dictionary on Historical Principles  (later renamed the  Oxford English Dictionary).1884/1885—Mark Twains  novel  The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn  introduces a  colloquial  prose  style  that significantly influences the writing of fiction in the U.S.1901—The Commonwealth of Australia is established as a dominion of the British Empire.1906—Henry and Francis Fowler publish the first edition of  The Kings English.1907—New Zealand is established as a dominion of the British Empire.1919—H.L. Mencken  publishes the first edition of  The American Language, a pioneer study in the history of a major national version of English.1920—The first American commercial radio station begins operating in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.1921—Ireland  achieves Home Rule, and Gaelic is made an official language in addition to English.1922—The British Broadcasting Company (later renamed the British Broadcasting Corporat ion, or  BBC) is established.1925—The New Yorker  magazine is founded by  Harold Ross  and Jane Grant.1925—George P. Krapp publishes his two-volume  The English Language in America, the first comprehensive and scholarly treatment of the subject.1926—Henry Fowler publishes the first edition of his  Dictionary of Modern English Usage.1927—The first speaking motion picture,  The Jazz Singer, is released.1928—The Oxford English Dictionary  is published.1930—British linguist C.K. Ogden introduces  Basic English.1936—The first television service is established by the BBC.1939—World War II begins.1945—World War II ends. The Allied victory contributes to the growth of English as a  lingua franca.1946—The Philippines  gains its independence from the U.S.1947—India is freed from British control and divided into Pakistan and India. The  constitution  provides that English remain the official language for 15 years. New Zealand gains its independence from the U.K. and joins the Commonwealth.1949—Hans Kurath publishes  A Word Geography of the Eastern United States, a landmark in the scientific study of American  regionalisms.1950—Kenneth Burke  publishes  A Rhetoric of Motives.1950s—The number of speakers using  English as a second language  exceeds the number of  native speakers.1957—Noam Chomsky  publishes  Syntactic Structures, a key document in the study of  generative  and  transformational grammar.1961—Websters Third New International Dictionary  is published.1967—The Welsh Language Act gives the Welsh language equal validity with  English in Wales, and Wales is no longer considered a part of England. Henry Kucera and Nelson Francis publish  Computational Analysis of Present-Day American English, a landmark in modern  corpus linguistics.1969—Canada  officially becomes bilingual (French and English). The first major English dictionary to use corpus linguistics—The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language—is published.1972—A Grammar of Contemporary English  (by Randolph Quirk, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik) is published. The first call on a personal cell phone is made. The first  email  is sent.1978—The Linguistic Atlas of England  is published.1981—The first issue of the journal  World Englishes  is published.1985—A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language  is published by Longman. The first edition of M.A.K. Hallidays  An Introduction to Functional Grammar  is published.1988—The Internet (under development for more than 20 years) is opened to commercial interests.1989—The second edition of  The Oxford English Dictionary  is published.1993—Mosaic, the web browser credited with popularizing the World Wide Web, is released. (Netscape Navigator b ecomes available in 1994, Yahoo! in 1995, and Google in 1998.)1994—Text messaging  is introduced, and the first modern blogs go online.1995—David Crystal publishes  The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language.1997—The first social networking site (SixDegrees.com) is launched. (Friendster is introduced in 2002, and both MySpace and Facebook begin operating in 2004.)2000—The Oxford English Dictionary Online (OED Online) is made available to subscribers.2002—Rodney Huddleston and Geoffrey K. Pullum publish  The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language. Tom McArthur publishes  The Oxford Guide to World English.2006—Twitter, a social networking and microblogging service, is created by Jack Dorsey.2009—The two-volume  Historical Thesaurus of the Oxford English Dictionary  is published by Oxford University Press.2012—The fifth volume (SI-Z) of the  Dictionary of American Regional English  (DARE  ) is publishe d by Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. Resources and Further Reading Algeo, John.  The Origins and Development of the English Language, 6th edition. Wadsworth, 2009.Baugh, Albert C., and Thomas Cable.  A History of the English Language, 5th edition. Prentice Hall, 2001.Bragg, Melvyn.  The Adventure of English: The Biography of a Language. Hodder Stoughton, 2003.Crystal, David.  The English Language. Penguin, 2002.Gooden, Philip.  The Story of English: How the English Language Conquered the World. Quercus, 2009.Hogg, Richard M., and David Dennison, editors.  A History of the English Language. Cambridge University Press, 2006.Horobin, Simon.  How English Became English: A Short History of a Global Language. Oxford University Press, 2016.Lerer, Seth.  Inventing English: A Portable History of the Language. Columbia University Press, 2007.McArthur, Tom.  The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford University Press, 1992.McWhorter, John.  Our Magnificent Bastard Tongue: The Untold Story of English. Gotham, 2008.Millward, C.M., and Mary Hayes.  A Biography of the English Language, 3rd  ed. Wadsworth, 2011.Mugglestone, Linda.  The Oxford History of English. Oxford University Press, 2006.Nist, John.  A Structural History of English. St. Martins Press, 1966.